When remembering information, our brain goes through a three-stage memory process consisting of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

1. Encoding: The process of converting information so that it can be stored in the brain
2. Storage: The retention of information in the brain
3. Retrieval: The process of recalling information out of storage

Imagine you are organizing key terms into a mind map. Information like the picture of the mind map, the colour of the textbook, and the sounds coming from your surroundings (music, construction outside, message notifications) are entering your sensory register. A week later, while writing the midterm, you have trouble recalling one of the key terms; it's on the tip of your tongue but just beyond recollection. The inability to remember a definition on the day of an exam is an example of storage with retrieval difficulties.

In order to reach the storage phase of memory, our brains first have to encode the information we are receiving. This encoding is done through two types of processing.

1. Automatic Processing

• involuntary
• minimal effort and attention

2. Effortful Processing

• intentional
• requires attention

How we encode affects how we store and retrieve information. Storage is the bridge between encoding and retrieval. Retrieving information changes how we remember it in the future. 

    Try this quick quiz to test yourself on the information in this section.

Although our brains are constantly processing information, our memory is selective: we do not encode and store all of the data that we encounter. To learn and remember, we need to dedicate time and attention.

Your brain needs time to remember

It takes time to absorb new information from readings and videos.
It takes time to engage in the processes that will help the information transition to our long-term memory.

How does staying up late to study impact your memory?

Staying up all night (and sacrificing sleep) to do that extra bit of reading or rereading actually decreases retention and recollection. This is because memory consolidation (how experiences and information transition into long-term memory) occurs during sleep. By not sleeping, we are depriving our brains of the conditions needed to integrate new information.

Distractions impair memory

Some distractions (e.g., construction noise outside your window) are outside of your control. Others (e.g., multiple tabs open in your browser) are within your control. Work to eliminate the distractions you can control.

Self-Awareness Check: What distracts you when you are studying (e.g., phone, Netflix, social media, conversations)?

    Test yourself with this quiz. (How was your level of attention?)

How you encode information can affect retrieval. Try these two exercises.

1. Spend 30 seconds trying to memorize this list of words:

pineapple, calculator, ladybug, yam, thunder, headphones, mosquito, celery, hail, tornado, avocado, spider

Test yourself. How many words can you recall (without looking)?

2. Now spend 30 seconds trying to memorize this list of words:

Test yourself. How many words can you recall (from memory)?

In both exercises, you were engaged in effortful processing (for more on this, see the "How Memory Works" section on this page), but the second list of words was likely easier to memorize because the words were organized into categories.

Takeaways for your own studying

To make the material easier to process and later recall, apply these ChOSCo techniques:

• Ch = chunk
  The second list of words was presented in 4 chunks of 3 words each.
• O = organize
  The words were organized by meaning. (Orange, banana and apple are all types of fruit.)
• S = summarize
  It would be hard to summarize a list of words, but for more complex information, summarizing helps your brain focus on key points.
• Co = connect new information to the information you have already learned.
  Attaching new information to other known information helps the new information stick.

Note: ChOSCo is an example of a mnemonic (memory tool) where a pattern of letters helps you remember information. For more examples of mnemonics, take a look at this handout.

What memory cues can we build into our study materials?

There are three types of encoding:

1. Acoustic encoding: the encoding of sounds
2. Visual encoding: the encoding of imagery
3. Semantic encoding: focuses on the meaning of the information

In the second exercise above, the categories allowed for semantic encoding because the words were grouped by meaning. To encode the words visually, you could also imagine what a coyote, pencil, apple or tidal wave looks like. To encode the sounds of the words, you might read the list out loud multiple times.

    Quiz yourself on the information in this section.

When it comes to memory, there is often a focus on storing or encoding information, but regular retrieval is just as important. We don't just need to acquire knowledge; we need to make sure it is readily accessible. We need to be able to recall the information accurately and quickly during a test or a real-life task. Just like any other skill, practicing helps you improve.

Retrieval practice = self-testing

If you put away your notes and textbook,

• can you write down or repeat the information that you studied? 
• can you answer practice questions that use this content? Your practice questions could be in the form of flashcards, practice tests, or textbook exercises.

Simulate test conditions

To be truly ready for exam day, you need to simulate authentic exam conditions when you test yourself.

• If you are preparing for a timed test, then time your practice tests.
• If you are preparing for a closed-book test, then don't allow yourself to use materials during your practice test!

   Take this quick quiz to test yourself on this section.

Memorizing is not necessarily the same as learning or understanding

We are often expected to understand and apply information, so how do we encode to engage this? There are two different types of rehearsal.

1. Maintenance rehearsal

• is repeating information over and over without thinking about its meaning and/or relationship to other information,
• is helpful for short-term memory, but
• is not an effective form of encoding for long-term memory.

An example of maintenance rehearsal is repeating a formula to yourself multiple times. 

 2. Elaborative rehearsal

• is thinking more deeply about information and making meaningful associations with other information, and
• promotes long-term memory.

An example of elaborative rehearsal is describing when a formula can be applied, what its components are, and identifying how it can be applied to various problems.

Check out the Active Learning webpage for note-taking and reading strategies that engage elaborative rehearsal.

Once is not enough

To maintain the memory, we need to retrieve the information repeatedly over time. The forgetting curve below, based on the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus, models the decaying retention of memory over time.

If you follow the black "First Studied" curve, you can see that if you don't review the information at all, chances are you will be able to remember very little of the information after a few weeks. With each successive review session, your chances of remembering increase. 

   Try this final short quiz to see how much you remember from this section.